The Himalayas

The Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world, extend along the northern frontiers of Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma. They were formed geologically as a result of the collision of the Indian subcontinent with Asia. This process of plate tectonics is ongoing, and the gradual northward drift of the Indian subcontinent still causes earthquakes (see Earthquakes, this ch.). Lesser ranges jut southward from the main body of the Himalayas at both the eastern and western ends. The Himalayan system, about 2,400 kilometers in length and varying in width from 240 to 330 kilometers, is made up of three parallel ranges--the Greater Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Outer Himalayas--sometimes collectively called the Great Himalayan Range. The Greater Himalayas, or northern range, average approximately 6,000 meters in height and contain the three highest mountains on earth: Mount Everest (8,796 meters) on the China-Nepal border; K2 (8,611 meters, also known as Mount Godwin-Austen, and in China as Qogir Feng) in an area claimed by India, Pakistan, and China; and Kanchenjunga (8,598 meters) on the India-Nepal border. Many major mountains are located entirely within India, such as Nanda Devi (7,817 meters) in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The snow line averages 4,500 to 6,000 meters on the southern side of the Greater Himalayas and 5,500 to 6,000 on the northern side. Because of climatic conditions, the snow line in the eastern Himalayas averages 4,300 meters, while in the western Himalayas it averages 5,800 meters.

The Lesser Himalayas, located in northwestern India in the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, in north-central India in the state of Sikkim, and in northeastern India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, range from 1,500 to 5,000 meters in height. Located in the Lesser Himalayas are the hill stations of Shimla (Simla) and Darjiling (Darjeeling). During the colonial period, these and other hill stations were used by the British as summer retreats to escape the intense heat of the plains. It is in this transitional vegetation zone that the contrasts between the bare southern slopes and the forested northern slopes become most noticeable.

The Outer or Southern Himalayas, averaging 900 to 1,200 meters in elevation, lie between the Lesser Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic Plain. In Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, this southernmost range is often referred to as the Siwalik Hills. It is possible to identify a fourth, and northernmost range, known as the Trans-Himalaya. This range is located entirely on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, north of the great west-to-east trending valley of the Yarlung Zangbo River. Although the Trans-Himalaya Range is divided from the Great Himalayan Range for most of its length, it merges with the Great Himalayan Range in the western section--the Karakoram Range--where India, Pakistan, and China meet.

The southern slopes of each of the Himalayan ranges are too steep to accumulate snow or support much tree life; the northern slopes generally are forested below the snow line. Between the ranges are extensive high plateaus, deep gorges, and fertile valleys, such as the vales of Kashmir and Kulu. The Himalayas serve a very important purpose. They provide a physical screen within which the monsoon system operates and are the source of the great river systems that water the alluvial plains below (see Climate, this ch.). As a result of erosion, the rivers coming from the mountains carry vast quantities of silt that enrich the plains.

The area of northeastern India adjacent to Burma and Bangladesh consists of numerous hill tracts, averaging between 1,000 and 2,000 meters in elevation, that are not associated with the eastern part of the Himalayas in Arunachal Pradesh. The Naga Hills, rising to heights of more than 3,000 meters, form the watershed between India and Burma. The Mizo Hills are the southern part of the northeastern ranges in India. The Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills are centered in the state of Meghalaya and, isolated from the northeastern ranges, divide the Assam Valley from Bangladesh to the south and west.

MITLA - MIXTEC RUINS

Some of the most amazing things to see in Mexico are the ruins, which provide us with a glance into a very important and sometimes difficult past. Take the Mitla, Mixtec Ruins as an example. The name Mitla comes from the word Mictlan, a Nahuatl word that translates to "Place of the Dead." Now, the ruins are also called Lyobaa in the Zapotecan language, which translates to "Burial Place."

The Mitla Ruins are indeed a location with tombs of ancient priests and kings. Through years of archeological study, it is estimated that the site was inhabited as early as 900 BC. However, the current ruins and structures date between 200 and 900 AD. As you travel about the ruins, you will discover many different and unique structures.

For example, the city itself corresponds with the peak of Zapotecan rule over Monte Alban from 500 BC to 800 AD, although there was tremendous growth from 750 to 1521 AD at which time the Zapotecan rule ended. Because of this, you will see some ruins that are very ornate and detailed while others have a more rustic, ancient appearance.

In the late 1500s, a Spanish explorer by the name of Canseco came to this region and stated that the interior chamber of the Hall of Columns was the home of the High Priest. In fact, Father Burgoa who was a Spanish Chronicler added to that saying that Mitla was also the residence of the Zapotec High Priest. This man was so incredibly powerful that legend tells us even King Zaashila bowed to his commands. Burgoa also stated that the High Priest rules from a jaguar covered thrown.

This ancient city was originally comprised of five primary palaces. One of these palaces was for the Zapotecan High Priest, one for the secondary priests, one for the military officers, and then one maintained for the king along with his entourage whenever they were in Monte Alban. As you can imagine, the Mitla - Mixtec Ruins were quite impressive in the time and today, you can experience what is left.

To get to the Mitla - Mixtec, you would take the famous Pan American Highway. The great thing about this route is that along the way, you pass a number of interesting archaeological sites, along with craft villages and markets. In addition, you can stop to visit the church at Tlacochahuaya, Teotitlan del Valle, which is a weaver's village, the Dominican chapel, and other ruins that include Yagul, Dainzu, and Lambityeco.

You will even have the opportunity the El Tule, which is a massive and ancient cypress tree. The reason the El Tule so incredible is that it is 2,000 years old. This particular tree is in the town of Santa Maria del Tule, which is located just outside Oaxaca where it stands in a churchyard.

As you plan your trip to the Mitla - Mixtec Ruins, try to plan your trip so you can take in some of these amazing sites. You will really enjoy the visit and learn many things about the people of this era.

The Lost Village

More commonly known as the Lost Village, Ceren was a Classic Period village. Around 595 AD, the Loma Caldera volcano in north central El Salvador erupted with violence. The result was a mass of fiery ash and debris being spewed up to 16 feet deep and almost two miles long. The people living in Ceren, which was only one quarter of a mile from the center of the volcano, ran for their lives, leaving food on the dinner table as homes and fields were destroyed.

For over 1,400 years, this city lay forgotten, thus the name. However, in 1978, excavation was underway when a bulldozer accidentally opened the city, exposing everything perfectly preserved, as if people had simply walked away from the table. Experts are unable to determine the size of Ceren prior to the volcano eruption but through archaeological studies and excavations performed by the University of Colorado, we do know more about this civilization.

To date, excavations have shown that there was a civic building, sanctuary, four households, one sweat bath, and several agricultural fields. Interestingly, the very flash heat that preserved images at Herculaneum and Pompeii also left negative impressions of the agricultural crops. What these images show is that there were eight, 16-rows of corn, squash, manioc, beans, agave, and cotton. In addition, images also showed guava, cacao, and avocado orchids.

Many wonderful and interesting artifacts have been found to include wares used for cooking, storing food, and drinking chocolate. There has also been evidence uncovered relating to ceremonial and civic functions of the sweat bath, feast hall, and sanctuary. However, while all of these discovers are incredible, the people of Ceren are by far the most interesting. For instance, in one of the households, a number of things were discovered to include a cluster of four buildings, garden, and midden. Of these buildings, one was a home, two were made of daub and wattle construction, the roof was thatched, and the columns for supporting the roof at the four corners were adobe.

Inside one of the rooms, a raised bench was found along with two storage jars. In one of the jars, seeds were found and in the other jar, cotton fibers. Other finds included a spindle whorl, which suggested a spinning kit for thread. Another structure found in Ceren was a ramada with a roof but without walls. Then, a storehouse, which interestingly, was still full of storage jars, incensories, metates, hammer stones, and other tools that would have been used during that era, was still in tact. This storehouse still contained shelving, which was stocked with beans and other foods while chili peppers still hung from the rafters.

Although the people from Ceren, the lost village are long gone and the site has been abandoned for centuries, all of these findings have opened the door of opportunity, making this an excavators dream. Now being able to see this site with new technology has made Ceren one of the most incredible discoveries of our time.

Paraguay

Known as the "empty quarter" of the South Pacific, Paraguay is a country that few really know or understand. Distanced from the Latin American mainstream, this country was considered a country with very little to offer. The truth is that Paraguay boasts a number of national parks, a quaint riverside capital, and many wonderful Jesuit missions. The original inhabitants were semi-nomadic Guarani. In fact, historians estimate there were several groups of hunters and gatherers, which were called Guaycuru.

Then in 1524, the first European to cross to Paraguay with the help of aboriginal guides was a man named Alejo Garcia. Just three years later in 1527, Sebastian Cabot took a voyage up the Rio Paraguay but finding no settlements. Then another expedition led by Pedro de Mendoza settled in Asuncion having been forced to leave Buenos Aires. Soon, the colony began to grow and thrive, soon becoming a major Spanish settlement that sparked the intrigue of others interested in socialization.

The population of Native Indians grew, slowly absorbing the Spaniards. With this, the Guarani culture was also adopted to include the customs, languages, and food. As colonies were established, Jesuit missionaries came to help civilize the Indians, achieved with amazing skill. The Indians were encouraged to leave the land, settling instead in Reducciones, which were theocratic communes.

Once there, the Indians helped build churches, learned to paint, sculpt, and became excellent masons. For some, education was a part of the change. However, when the missionaires were forced out in 1767, the settlements began to fade away. Then by 1811, the country of Paraguay declared its independence, something Spain did not fight. For the people of Paraguay, this moment was one filled with pride and honor, something they had wanted for a long time.

However, just a few years later while under control of Jose Gaspar Rodriquez de Francia, known to many as "El Supremo", the country's borders were closed, which encouraged self-sufficiency. This action by Francia meant land and churches were confiscated, and merchants were brought under Francia's control. Dying in 1840, Francia's remains would be scattered into the river. His successor, Carlos Antonio Lopez ended to the country's isolation, taking time and effort to modernize what Francia had tried so hard to destroy.

Unfortunately, while the country was freed, his son was set on destroying the country with the start of the War of the Triple Alliance against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. When the was ended, more than 58,000 square miles of the land and about 25% of the population were lost, which included the son that had started the war in the first place. Although horrific, Paraguay has fought hard to rebuild. Through various wars and leadership changes, we see a country today being stronger from an economical aspect.

Today, Paraguay offers a lot. For one thing, the country is very interested in visual arts, seen in both theater and galleries. However, the music is actually of European origin, although it has slight touches of Argentinean, Brazilian, and Black. Two of the most popular instruments include the guitar, and interestingly, the harp. Dance is also an important part of the culture to include the bottle and polka dance.

For the food of Paraguay, we see a wide range of sub-tropical and tropical dishes. For starters, Manioc flour is something seen in just about every meal. Some local favorites include Sooyo Sopy, a thick soup made from ground meat, which is then served over noodles or rice, Locro, maize stew, or Mazamorra, corn mush. However, the desserts are delicious and simple, such as Mbaipy, which is truly delicious and made from corn, milk, and molasses.

Lima Peru

Nomadic hunters and gatherers were the first people of Peru. They lived along the coastal regions in caves and in fact, one of the oldest caves called Pikimachay can be dated back to 12,000 BC. Then sometime around 4,000 BC, the nomadic people began planning crops to include squash, beans, chili peppers, and cotton. As time progressed, they learned more skills to include agriculture, weaving, and even religion.

Then the Chavin disappeared around 300 BC but over the following centuries, other people came and went to include the Nazca, Paracas, Necropolis, Salinar, and Wari. In the early 15th century, the majority of Peru was controlled by the Inca Empire, with its influence stretching past Peru into Chile and Colombia. Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador started to explore all of the coastal regions of Peru between 1526 and 1528 where he discovered the many riches of the Empire.

From there, Pizarro went back to Spain where he gathered men and headed up an expedition taking them back to Peru. He entered the northern part of the country in a city called Cajamarca. Soon after in 1533, Pizarro captured the Inca Emperor, Atahualpa. Lima, Peru remained a very peaceful place for the next 200 years, becoming a hub for commercial, social, and political activities.

Located in the western portion of South America, Peru has several borders, Bolivia to the southwest, Chile to the south, Colombia to the north, Brazil to the northeast, and Ecuador to the northwest. The fascinating thing about Peru is that it has three very distinct regions, which include the Andean mountain range, the Amazon basin, and a narrow, coastal belt.

The Andes are comprised of two primary ranges - Oriental and Cordillera Occidental. However, reaching a staggering 22,000 feet about sea level is the largest mountain in Peru, the Huascarian. As you travel through Lima, you will immediately be impressed with the abundance of life. For instance, there are sea lions, pelicans, terns, flamingos, penguins, llama, bears, jaguars, hummingbirds, condors, alpaca, and the list goes on. To complement the wildlife is the beauty of Lima in the form of flora. In addition to hardy plants growing in the woodlands, there are national parks filled with flowers, trees, and lush greenery.

When visiting Lima, Peru, you will have your choice of two seasons. The first is the wet season and the second is the dry season. Typically, the western Andean slopes and coast are dry. The summer months for these regions start in December and run through April. The remainder of the year, the people of Lima experience what is called Garua, or coastal fog, which literally blocks out the sun, which is seldom seen. Then in the Andes, the dry season runs from May to September, again with the wet season spanning out over the remainder of the year. Then if you go to the eastern slopes, you would find dry months similar to those in the highlands and the wet season starting in January, running to April.

Although there are so many things that draw people to Lima, the natural beauty is at the top of the list. People notice that unlike other cities in Peru and South America, Lima seems to be more laid back, calmer environment where people do not stress. In fact, rather than feel like a larger metropolitan, Lima has the feel of a cluster of smaller towns. Some of the finest entertainment is at the Penas, which are bars where the famous folk and Creole music can be heard. If you prefer, you can visit any number of open marketplaces and of course, dine at some of the most amazing restaurants.

Other opportunities include some great museums where you can enjoy a glance into the past life of the Peruvian people. Then if you head to the south portion of Lima, you will discover some gorgeous white beaches and beautiful, cool waters. Although there are few amenities on these beaches, you will find a few cafes. If you love solitude, then the El Silencio beach is the place to visit. Lima, Peru is a living art gallery consisting of stone craft, textiles, metalwork, and fine pottery.

This city has a unique blend of Spanish colonization coupled with strong native Indian influences. There are beautiful paintings that mimic European style, amazing architecture, and the distinctive Cuzco style. Additionally, the people of Peru enjoy the popular Peruvian music, which is almost all, folk type music, and varied literature. The food in Lima is absolutely, delicious but the spices and flavors vary depending on the region. One of the best is the seafood, which comes fresh from the coast. Other foods that Westerners have a difficult time with is roasted guinea pig but in Peru, it is a coveted delicacy.

Other common foods found in Lima include chopped steak fried with onions, known as Lomo Saltado, White Sea bass that has been marinated in lemon, chili, and onions, called Cebiche de Corvina, and a unique spiced noodle soup made with egg, vegetables, and milk, known as Sopa a la Criolla. The flavors are rich, interesting, and very satisfying. When visiting, consider going during festival times. For instance, in the months of February and March, there is the Carnaval, in June Inti Raymi, an outstanding Inca festival, July the celebration of Peru's Independence, and then in November, Puno Day, a festival featuring flamboyant costumes and street music and dancing.